Learning Theories: Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism and Humanism

Ivan Pavlov – classical conditioning: a neutral stimulus (bell) paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) comes to produce a conditioned response (salivation). Related ideas: generalisation, discrimination, extinction, spontaneous recovery. Classroom: a child who is repeatedly humiliated in maths may develop anxiety at the sight of a maths book.

J. B. Watson – "father of behaviourism"; the Little Albert experiment.

E. L. Thorndike – connectionism (trial and error): cats in a puzzle box. Laws of learning:

• Law of readiness – learning is satisfying when the learner is ready.
• Law of exercise – practice strengthens connections (use and disuse).
• Law of effect – responses followed by satisfaction are strengthened.

B. F. Skinner – operant conditioning: behaviour is shaped by its consequences (Skinner box).

• Positive reinforcement – add something pleasant → behaviour increases (praise, a star).
• Negative reinforcement – remove something unpleasant → behaviour increases (no homework if work is finished in class).
• Punishment – decreases behaviour (positive: add unpleasant; negative: remove pleasant, e.g. losing break time).
• Shaping – reinforcing successive approximations.
• Schedules: fixed/variable ratio, fixed/variable interval; variable ratio produces the most persistent behaviour.
• Applications: programmed instruction, teaching machines, token economy.

Albert Bandura – social (observational) learning: Bobo doll experiment; learning by watching a model. Four processes: attention, retention, reproduction, motivation. Also introduced self-efficacy (belief in one's ability).

Gestalt psychology (Wertheimer, Köhler, Koffka): "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts". Köhler's insight learning – the chimpanzee Sultan suddenly joined sticks to reach a banana.

Information processing model: sensory memory → (attention) → short-term/working memory (about 7 ± 2 items, George Miller) → (rehearsal, encoding) → long-term memory. Teachers use chunking, mnemonics, concept maps and retrieval practice.

David Ausubel – meaningful reception learning: new learning must connect to what the learner already knows; advance organisers introduce the big idea before details.

Jerome Bruner – discovery learning; three modes of representation: enactive (action), iconic (images), symbolic (language/symbols); the spiral curriculum revisits topics at increasing depth.

Learners actively construct their own understanding by linking new experiences to prior knowledge.

• Cognitive constructivism – Piaget (individual discovery).
• Social constructivism – Vygotsky (learning through interaction).

Classroom features: start from students' prior knowledge, use real problems, inquiry and discussion, encourage multiple solutions, teacher as facilitator. A common lesson model is the 5E model: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate.

Focuses on the whole person, feelings, free will and personal growth.

Abraham Maslow – hierarchy of needs (bottom to top): physiological → safety → love/belonging → esteem → self-actualisation. The lower four are deficiency needs; self-actualisation is a growth need. A hungry or frightened child cannot concentrate on learning.

Carl Rogers – student-centred learning, unconditional positive regard, empathy and genuineness; the teacher as facilitator (Freedom to Learn).